Mostrando entradas con la etiqueta Religión. Mostrar todas las entradas
Mostrando entradas con la etiqueta Religión. Mostrar todas las entradas

miércoles, 27 de abril de 2022

William Drummond - A Discourse on Toleration (NIVEL AVANZADO)

 

Este discurso es un fragmento perteneciente a la History of Scotland de William Drummond of Hawthornden (publicada póstumamente en 1655). Lo pone Drummond en boca de un miembro del Consejo del rey Jacobo V, aconsejándole durante los primeros disturbios de la época de la Reforma en 1540. Según Robert Macdonald, editor de Poems and Prose de Drummond (Scottish Academic Press, 1976), Drummond revisó este texto varias veces durante la década de 1630, "and it was certainly intended as a comment upon the troubles of his own time". Tras el discurso del Consejero, la historia continúa: "But the King followed not this opinione…" (Macdonald 199).

El texto de Macdonald sigue un ejemplar de los manuscritos Hawthornden (N.L.S., MS 2057 ss., 202-8), con correcciones del propio autor, y titulado así, "A Speech on Toleration". No lo he encontrado en la Red, así que lo cuelgo y lo traduzco aquí.
Este texto es para mí uno de los hitos del pensamiento liberal y del laicismo, en una época de persecuciones, inquisiciones, quemas de herejes y guerras de religión, una época en la que se llevaba muy mal la tolerancia: era un concepto por redescubrir, y por teorizar. 

Es un texto, y una actitud, a redescubrir, pues hoy en día somos todos por supuesto muy democráticos y tolerantes, pero algunos sólo con quienes están de acuerdo con ellos contra un tercero (los terceros son "fascistas", o "nazis", o "fundamentalistas", o "inmigrantes ilegales", o "islamistas", o "extranjeros", o "separatistas"). Me llama la atención lo poco valorada que está hoy la tolerancia en muchos ámbitos: la gente la desprecia como algo "paternalista", y exige aceptación absoluta de sus opiniones (que son las correctas) y silenciamiento y represión de las del vecino si a su juicio son políticamente incorrectas.

Hay que tener en cuenta que en tiempos de Drummond la religión era el símbolo máximo de la ideología que constituye una comunidad como tal: decir "tolerancia con diversas creencias" es como hoy decir "tolerancia con el multiculturalismo" en la vida pública. El equivalente de "la única religión verdadera" es hoy "la democracia liberal y no confesional según el modelo occidental". Destaco una frase: tolerancia con todos aquellos que no tramen o lleven a la práctica nada que vaya contra las leyes del Reino. No exige Drummond que estemos de acuerdo con ellos en lo demás, ni ellos con nosotros. Y tampoco es preciso, por supuesto, que las minorías disidentes estén de acuerdo con las leyes: pero sí que las cumplan. Ay, there’s the rub, o la madre del cordero… las leyes. Sin leyes justas, no cabe hablar de tolerancia. Las leyes, y no sólo las actitudes, tienen que ser tolerantes, habría que recordarle a Drummond. Y a nuestros radicales de hoy en día, que no sólo las leyes, sino también las actitudes, tienen que ser tolerantes.


A Speech on Toleration


Sir, amongst the many blessings your Subjectes enjoye under this your Governement, this is not the least, that for the well of your Majestie, and the publicke good of the Kingdome, the meanest of your Subjectes may freelie open his minde and declare his opinione unto you his Soveraigne. And if ever there was a time in which grave, good and sound counsell should be delivered to your Majestie it is this, and the difficulyies of the Commonwealth doe now require it. Not ever in matteres of advice and consultatione can wee embrace and follow what is most reasonable, and what according to Lawes, Justice, Equitie should be, but what necessitye driveth us unto, and what is most convenient for the present time to be, and what wee may well and fairlie accomplish and bring to passe.

The Estate of your Kingdome is troubled with diversitie of opiniones concerning Religione; It is to be wished that the one onlie true Religion were in the heartes of all your Subjectes (Since diversitie of opiniones of Religione and heresies, are the verie punishment of God almightie upon men for their horrible vices and roring Sinnes. And when Men forsake his feare and true obedience, God abandoneth them to their owne opiniones and fantasies in Religion: out of which arise partialityes, factiones, divisiones, strife, intestine discords, which burst forth into civill warres, and in short time bring Kingdomes and Commonwealthes to their last Periodes). But matteres arising to such a hight and disorder, as by all appearances they are like to advance in this Kingdome, the number of the Sectaryes daylie increasing, without dissimulating my thoughts to your Majestie, the preservation of the People being the supresme and principall Law which God almightie hath enjoyned to all Princes, I hold it more expedient to give place to the exercise of both Religions, than under pretence and shadow of them to suffer the commone peace of your Subjectes to be torne in pieces. What can wisdome (Sir) advise youw to doe with these Separatists? Either they must be tollerated for a time or they must altogether be removed, and that by death or banishment? So soon as a Prince beginneth to spoyle, banish, kill, burne his people, for matters abstract from sence and altogether spirituall, hee becometh as it were a plague unto them. It is an errour of state in a Prince, for an opinione of pietie to condemne to death the adhereres to new doctrine. For, the constancie and patience of those who voluntarilie suffer all temporall miseryes and death it selfe for matteres of faith, stirre up and invite numberes, who at first and before they had suffered were ignorant of their faith and doctrine, not onlie to favour their cause but to embrace their opiniones; Pity and commiseration opening the gates: thus their Beleefe spredeth it selfe abroad, and their number daylie encreaseth. It is a no less errour of State to banish them: Banished Men are so manie Ennemyes abroad, reddye upon all occasiones to invade their native Countrie, to trouble the peace and tranquillitye of your Kingdome.

To take arms against Sectaries and Separatists will be a great enterprise, a matter hard and of many dangeres: Religione can not be preached by Armes; the first Christianes detested that forme of proceeding: force and compulsion may bring forth Hypocrites, not true Christianes. If there be any heresie amongst your people, this wound is in the Soule; our Soules being spirituall Substances upon which fire and iron can not worke, they must be overcome by spirituall armes: Love the Men and pittye their erroures? Who can laye upon a Man a necessitie to beleeve that which hee will not beleeve, or what hee will beleeve, or doth beleeve, not to beleeve. No Prince hath such power over the Soules and thoughts of Men, as hee hath over their Bodyes. Now to ruine and extirpate all those Sectaryes, what will it prove else than to cut off one of your armes, to the great prejudice of your Kingdome and weakening of the State? They daylie encreasing in number, and no Man being so miserable and mean, but that hee is a member of the State?

The more easie manner and nobler way were to tollerate both Religiones, and graunt a place to two Churches in the Kingdome till it shall please almightie God to reunite the mindes of your Subjectes, and turne them all of one will and opinione: Be content to keepe that which yee may, Sir, since yee can not that which yee would.

It is a false and erroneous opinione, that a Kingdome can not subsiste which tollerateth two Religiones: Diversitie of Religion shooteth up not societye, nor barreth civill conversatione amongst men. A little time will make persones of different Religiones contracte such acquaintance, custome, familiaritie together, that they will be intermixed in one Cittye, familie, yea mariage bed, State and Religione haveing nothing commoan. Why (I praye) may not two Religiones be suffered in a State (till by some sweet and easie meanes they be reduced to a right governement) since in the Church (which should be unione it selfe and of which the Romane Church much vanteth) all-most infinit Sectes and kyndes of Monkes are suffered; differing in their Lawes, Rules of governement, fashiones of living, dyet, apparell, maintenance and opiniones of perfectione, and who sequestree themselves from our publike unione? The Romane Empyre had its extensione, not by similitud and likenesse of Religione. Different Religiones, providing they enterprise or practise no thing against the politike Lawes of the Kingdome, maye be tollerated in a State.

The Murtheres, massacres, Battailles, which arise and are like daylie to encrease amongst Christians, all which are undertaken for Religione, are a thousand times more execrable, and be more open plaine flat impietie, than this libertye of diversitie of Religiones with a quiet peace can be unjust: for as much as the greatest part of those who flesh themselves in bloud and slaughter, and overturne by armes the peace of their Neighboures (whom they should love as themselves) spoyling and ravaging lyke famished Lyones, sacrifice their Soules to the infernall Poweres without further hopes or meanes of recoverye, and comming bake, when those otheres are in some way of Repentance.

In seeking libertie of Religione, these Men seeke not to beleeve any thing that may come in their Braines; but to use Religione according to the first Christiane institutiones, serving God and obeying the Lawes under which they were borne.

That Maxime so often echoed amongst the Church-Men of Rome, that the Chase and following of Heretikes is more necessarye than that of Infidelles, is well applyed for the inlarging and increasing of the dominiones, Souveraignitie, and power of the Pope, but not for the amplifying and extending of the Christiane Religione, and the Well and benefite of the Christian common wealth.

Kingdomes and Souveraignities should not be governed by the Lawes and interests of Priests, and Church-men, but according to the exigencie, need, and as the case requireth of the publick well, which often is necessitated to passe and tolerate some defectes and faults. It is the duetye of all Christian princes to endevoure and take paines that their Subjectes embrace the true faith, as that semblablye and in even partes they observe all Gods commandements, and not more one commandement than another. Notwithstanding when a vice cannot be extirpate and taken away without the ruine of the State, it would appear to humane judgements that it should be suffered: Neither is there a greater obligatione, bond, necessitye of Law, to punish heretickes more than fornicatores, which yet for the peace and tranquillitye of the State are tollerated and passed over. Neither can a greater inconveniencie and harme follow if wee shall suffer men to live in our Commonwealth who beleeve not nor embrace not all our opiniones. In an Estate manye thinges are for the time tollerated, because they can not without the totall ruine of the State be sudainlie amended and reformed.

These men are of that same nature and condition of which wee are; they worshippe as wee doe one God, they beleeve those very same holye Recordes; wee both aime at salvatione, wee both feare to offend God, wee both set before us one happinesse. The difference betwixt them and us hangeth on this one point, that they having found abuses in our church, require a Reformation: Now shall it be said for that wee runne diverse ways to one end, understand not rightlie otheres language, wee shall pursue otheres with fire and sword, and extirpate otheres from the face of the Earth. God is not in the bitter divisione and alienatione of affectiones, nor the raging flames of seditiones, nor in the Tempestes of the turbulent whirl-windes of contradictiones and disputationes, but in the calme and gentle breathinges of peace and concord. If any wander out of the high way, wee bring him to it again, if any be in darknesse, wee show him light, and kill him not; in musicall instruments if a string jarre and be out of tone, wee doe not freetinglie breake it, but leasurelie veere it about to a concord: and shall wee be so churlish, cruell, uncharitable, so wedded to our own superstitious opiniones, that wee will barbarouslye banish, kill, burne those who, by love and sweetnesse wee might reddilye winne and recall againe?

Let us win and demerite these men by reasone, let them be cited to a free councell, it may be they shall not be proven heretickes, neither that they maintaine opiniones condemned by the auncient Councelles. Let their Religion be compared and paraleled with the Religion of the first age of the Church.

Shall wee hold this people worse then the Jewes, which yet have their Synagoges at Rome it selfe? Let them receave instructiones from a free and lawful Councell, and forsake their erroures, when they shall be clealie and fairlie demonstrate unto them. Heresie is an errour in the fundamentall Grounds of Religion. Shisme intendeth a resolutione in separatione: Let a good Councell be convocated, and see if they be reddye or not to reunite themselves to us.

That which they beleeve is not evill, but to some it will appeare they beleeve not enough, and that there is in them rather a defect of good than anye habit of evill. Other pointes when they shall be considdered, shall be found to consiste in externall ceremonyes of the Church rather than in substance of doctrine, or what is esentiall to Christianitie. These men should be judged before condemned, and they should be heard before they be judged. Which being hollelyie and uprightlie done, wee shall find it is not our Religiones, but our private interestes and our passiones which troubleth us; and the State.



Discurso sobre la tolerancia


Señor, entre las muchas bendiciones de que vuestros súbditos gozan bajo vuestro gobierno no es la menor el hecho de que, para beneficio de Vuestra Majestad, y del bien público del Reino, el más insignificante de vuestros súbditos puede libremente exponer sus ideas y declarar su opinión ante vos, su soberano. Y si hubo jamás un momento en el que haya que dar a Vuestra Majestad un consejo serio, bueno y de fiar, es éste, y las dificultades de la nación lo hacen hoy necesario. En asuntos de consejo y consulta no siempre podemos abrazar y seguir lo que es más razonable, y lo que debería ser según las Leyes, la Justicia y la Equidad, sino aquello a lo que nos lleva la necesidad, y lo que es más conveniente que sea para el momento presente, y lo que podemos hacer que se cumpla y suceda con bien y con justicia.

El estado de vuestro Reino está inquieto con diversidad de opiniones sobre la Religión; sería de desear que la única religión verdadera estuviese en los corazones de todos vuestros súbditos (ya que la diversidad de opiniones en religión y las herejías son el castigo mismo de Dios todopoderoso a los hombres por sus horribles vicios y pecados escandalosos). Y cuando los hombres abandonan su temor y obediencia auténtica, Dios los abandona a ellos a sus propias opiniones y fantasías en religión: de las cuales surgen parcialidades, facciones, divisiones, lucha, discordias intestinas, que hacen brotar guerras civiles, y en poco tiempo llevan a los reinos y las naciones a sus últimos periodos).  Pero llegando los asuntos a tal altura y desorden, como según toda apariencia es posible que lleguen en este Reino, al crecer diariamente el número de sectarios, sin disimular mis pensamientos a vuestra Majestad, siendo la protección del Pueblo la ley suprema y principal que Dios todopoderoso ordena observar a todos los Príncipes, considero que es más conveniente hacer sitio a la práctica de ambas religiones, que hacer que con la excusa y apariencia de ellas se rompa en mil pedazos la paz común de vuestros súbditos. ¿Qué puede aconsejaros la sabiduría, Señor, que hagáis con estos separatistas? O bien deben ser tolerados durante un tiempo o deben ser completamente suprimidos, y eso  - ¿mediante la muerte o el destierro? Tan pronto como un príncipe empieza a despojar, desterrar, matar, quemar a su pueblo, por asuntos abstraídos de los sentidos y completamente espirituales, se vuelve como una peste para ellos. Es un error de Estado en un príncipe, que por cuestiones de opinión en materia de culto condene a muerte a los partidarios de una nueva doctrina. Porque la constancia y paciencia de quienes sufren voluntariamente todas las penalidades temporales y la muerte misma por cuestiones de fe agitan e invitan a muchísimos, que antes de esos sufrimientos eran ignorantes de su fe y doctrina, no sólo a favorecer su causa, sino a abrazar sus creencias, al abrirles la puerta la piedad y la conmiseración; así su creencia se extiende por todas partes, y su número a diario crece. Es un error político no menor el desterrarlos: los exiliados son otros tantos enemigos en el extranjero, dispuestos en todo momento a invadir su país natal, a turbar la paz y tranquilidad de vuestro Reino.

Tomar armas contra sectarios y separatistas sería una empresa enorme, un asunto difícil y con grandes peligros: la religión no se puede predicar con las armas; los primeros cristianos detestaban esa forma de proceder: la fuerza y la obligación pueden producir hipócritas, no auténticos cristianos. Si alguna herejía hay entre vuestros súbditos, esa herida está en el alma; al ser nuestras almas sustancias espirituales sobre las que el fuego y el hierro no pueden actuar, deben ser vencidas con armas espirituales: ¡Amad a los hombres y compadeceos de sus errores! ¿Quién puede imponer a un hombre la obligación de creer lo que no quiere creer, o de no creer lo que quiere creer, o cree? Ningún gobernante tiene semejante poder sobre las almas y pensamientos de los hombres como el que tiene sobre sus cuerpos. Y arruinar y extirpar a todos esos sectarios, ¿qué resultará ser sino cortaros uno de vuestros brazos, para gran perjuicio de vuestro reino y debilitamiento del Estado? ¿Siendo que cada día crecen en número, y que no hay hombre tan despreciable e insignificante que no sea un miembro del Estado?

La manera más fácil y vía más noble sería tolerar ambas religiones, y conceder un sitio a dos Iglesias en el reino, hasta que plazca a Dios todopoderoso reunir las mentes de vuestros súbditos, y volverlos a todos de una misma voluntad y opinión: Contentaos con mantener lo que podéis, Señor, ya que no podéis aquello que quisierais.

Es una opinión falsa y errónea, la de que no puede subsistir un reino que tolere dos religiones. La diversidad de religión no destruye la sociedad, ni impide el trato civilizado entre los hombres. Un poco de tiempo hará que personas de diferentes religiones adquieran tal trato, costumbre, familiaridad, que puedan mezclarse unos con otros en una misma ciudad, familia, y hasta lecho de matrimonio, al no tener nada en común el Estado y la Religión. ¿Por qué (suplico se me diga) no pueden dos religiones tolerarse en un Estado (hasta que de alguna manera suave y amable se reduzcan a un gobierno adecuado) si en la Iglesia (que debería ser la unión misma, y de lo cual mucho se jacta la Iglesia romana) se toleran casi infinitas sectas y clases de monjes, que difieren en sus leyes, reglas de gobierno, maneras de vivir, dieta, vestido, economía e ideas sobre la perfección, y que se aíslan de nuestra unión pública? El Imperio Romano no logró su extensión mediante la similitud y uniformidad de religión. Diferentes religiones, con tal de que no tramen ni practiquen nada contra las leyes políticas del Reino, pueden tolerarse en un Estado.

Los asesinatos, matanzas, combates, que surgen y probablemente irán a más a diario entre los cristianos, todos ellos emprendidos por causa de la religión, son mil veces más execrables, y son más claramente una mera impiedad, de lo injusta que pudiese ser esa libertad de diversidad de religiones con una paz tranquila: porque en la misma medida la mayoría de quienes se hacen a la sangre y a la matanza, y alteran con armas la paz de sus vecinos (a quienes deberían amar como a sí mismos), rapiñando y arrasando como leones hambrientos, sacrifican sus almas a los poderes infernales sin esperanza ni medio de recobrarlas ni de volver atrás, cuando aquellos otros están camino del arrepentimiento.
Al buscar la libertad religiosa, esos hombres no buscan creer cualquier cosa que se les pueda meter en los sesos, sino usar de la religión conforme a las primeras instituciones cristianas, sirviendo a Dios y obedeciendo a las leyes bajo las cuales nacieron.

Esa máxima tan a menudo repetida entre los eclesiásticos de Roma, que la persecución y detección de los herejes es más necesaria que la de los infieles, está bien aplicada para el crecimiento y aumento de los dominios, soberanía y poder del Papa, pero no para ampliar y extender la religión cristiana, ni para el bienestar y beneficio de la comunidad cristiana.
Los reinos y principados no deberían gobernarse por las leyes e intereses de los sacerdotes y eclesiásticos, sino según la exigencia, necesidad y como requiera el caso del bien público, que a menudo se ve obligado a aceptar y tolerar algunos defectos y faltas. Es deber de todos los príncipes cristianos esforzarse y cuidar mucho para que sus súbditos abracen la auténtica fe, de modo que semejantemente y por partes iguales observen todos los mandamientos de Dios, y no un mandamiento más que otro. Sin embargo, cuando un vicio no puede extirparse y suprimirse sin la ruina del Estado, parece razonable a los juicios humanos que haya de tolerarse. Ni hay mayor obligación, compromiso, ni necesidad legal, de castigar a los herejes más que a los fornicadores, que sin embargo por la paz y tranquilidad del Estado se toleran e ignoran. Ni ha de seguirse mayor inconveniencia y daño si toleramos que vivan en la comunidad hombres que no creen ni se adhieren a todas nuestras opiniones. En un Estado muchas cosas se toleran por el momento porque no pueden reformarse ni enmendarse súbitamente sin la ruina total del Estado.

Estos hombres tienen nuestra misma naturaleza y condición; adoran como nosotros a un Dios, creen en las mismas Escrituras sagradas; tanto ellos como nosotros aspiramos a la salvación, ambos tememos ofender a dios, ambos ponemos ante nosotros la misma felicidad. La diferencia entre ellos y nosotros gira sólo en este punto, que ellos, habiendo encontrado abusos en nuestra iglesia, exigen una reforma. Ahora bien, ¿habrá de decirse que como vamos por caminos distintos a un mismo fin, o como no comprendemos bien el idioma del otro, habremos de perseguir al otro con fuego y espada, y extirparlo de la faz de la Tierra? Dios no se halla en la amarga división y enajenación de los afectos, ni en las llamas rabiosas de la sedición, ni en las tempestades y torbellinos turbulentos de contrarréplicas y disputas, sino en los alientos suaves y tranquilos de la paz y la concordia. Si alguno se sale del camino, lo traemos otra vez a él, si alguno está en la oscuridad, le mostramos la luz, y no lo matamos. En los instrumentos musicales, si una cuerda suena desafinada y fuera de tono, no la rompemos enojados, sino que con calma la afinamos hasta que suena con las otras: y seremos tan toscos, crueles, faltos de caridad, tan maridados a nuestras propias opiniones supersticiosas, que bárbaramente habremos de desterrar, matar, quemar a aquellos a quienes con amor y amabilidad podríamos fácilmente convencer y hacer venir con nosotros?

Convenzamos y quitemos la razón a estos hombres con la razón; que se les convoque a un concilio libre; puede que no resulten ser herejes, ni mantengan opiniones condenadas por los antiguos concilios. Que se compare y se coteje su religión con la religión de la primera época de la Iglesia.

¿Habremos de tener a esta gente en peor consideración que a los judíos, que sin embargo tienen sus sinagogas en la misma Roma? Que reciban instrucciones de un concilio libre y legítimo, y que abandonen sus errores cuando con claridad y justicia se les demuestren a ellos. La herejía es un error en la base fundamental de la religion: el cisma intenta buscar la solución en la separación. Que se convoque un buen Consejo, y veamos si están dispuestos o no a reunirse con nosotros.

Lo que creen no es malo, pero a algunos les parecerá que no creen lo suficiente, y que hay en ellos más bien una falta de bien que hábito alguno de mal. Otros extremos cuando se examinen se verá que consisten en ceremonias externas de la Iglesia, más bien que en la sustancia de la doctrina, ni en cosas esenciales para el Cristianismo. Estos hombres deberían ser juzgados antes de ser condenados, y deberían ser escuchados antes de ser juzgados. Y si se hace santamente y con justicia, encontraremos que no son nuestras religiones sino nuestros intereses privados y nuestras pasiones las que nos alteran, a nosotros y al Estado.

miércoles, 27 de noviembre de 2019

Other Augustan Prose Writers (NIVEL AVANZADO)

Other Augustan Prose Writers


Shaftesbury (1671-1713)
_____. Characteristicks of Men, Manners, Opinions , and Times, 1711

Anthony Ashley Cooper, The Third Earl of Shaftesbury (the grandson of Dryden's 'Achitophel') gave an influential formulation to many ideas of the Enlightenment. Optimistic theodicy, a defense that evil is necessary for the overall good of the universe (like Pope and Bolingbroke). He defends the notions of the Great Chain of Being and of a full universe. Social morality is derived from innate human benevolence: a belief based on the contemplation of the order of the Universe. He advocates a rational christianity.




Joseph Butler  (1692-1752)
_____. Analogy of Religion, Natural and Revealed, to the Constitution and Course of Nature. 1736.

Butler was a Bishop of the Church of England. His main work, the Analogy of Religion,  is a defense of Christianity, which tries to justify the necessity of revealed religion from the evidence of order that we find in Nature. Butler is a product of the age of Reason in matters of religion: but he uses reason, or an appearance of reason, to affirm the doctrine of established Christianity. This was considered by many the definitive proof of divine order against the attacks of skeptical philosophy and science.






William Law (1686-1761)
______. The Absolute Unlawfulness of the Stage Entertainment. 1726.
______. A Serious Call to a Devout and Holy Life. 1728.

Law was a protestant preacher and author of devotional works. His Serious Call tried to instigate a more emotional and passionate involvement in religion, away from the moderate indifference of the Church of England. Law's work was very influential, was read by many people, and had an important persional impact on people like Samuel Johnson or the religious reformer John Wesley. He stresses the importance of simple faith and even of mysticism; instead of appealing to reason he calls for feeling, religious emotion, and the personal relationship he imagines to exist between every individual Christian and God. (A Protestant revival).




 


John Wesley (1703-91)
_____. Journal. 1735- Pub. 1837.
_____. Works. 32 vols. 1771-4.


Wesley was the founder of Methodism, a Christian church which caused scandal at the time because of the presence of women preachers. Methodism was popular among the lower classes, as a form of self-valuing and the instigation of a democratic feeling in religion. The religious revival called "Evangelicalism" was initiated by John and Charles Wesley, following Law. Evangelicals try to achieve religious inspiration and eloquence, a personal feeling of salvation and renewal. The "enthusiam" of Methodists and other Evangelicals was criticized by the High Church Anglicans, like Joseph Butler, and by the Deists.




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martes, 12 de noviembre de 2019

John Bunyan


From The Oxford Companion to English Literature, ed. Margaret Drabble.

BUNYAN, John (1628-1688), born at Elstow, near Bedford, the son of a brazier. He learned to read and write at the village school and was early set to his father's trade. He was drafted into the parliamentary army and was stationed at Newport Pagnell, 1644-6, an experience perhaps reflected in The Holy War. In 1659 he married his first wife, who introduced him to two religious works, Dent's Plain Man's Pathway to Heaven and Bayly's Practice of Piety; these, the Bible, the Prayer Book, and Foxe's *Actes and Monuments were his principal reading matter. In 1653 he joined a Non-conformist church in Bedford, preached there, and came into conflict with the Quakers (see under FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF), against whom he published his first writings, Some Gospel Truths Opened (1656) and A Vindication (1657). He married his second wife Elizabeth c. 1659, his first having died c. 1656 leaving four children. As an itinerant tinker who presented his Puritan mission as apostolic and placed the poor and simple above the mighty and learned, Bunyan was viewed by the Restoration authorities as a militant subversive. Arrested in Nov. 1660 for preaching without a licence, he was derided at his trial as 'a pestilent fellow', to which his wife riposted, 'Because he is a tinker, and a poor man, therefore he is despised and cannot have justice.' Bunyan spent most of the next 12 years in Bedford Jail. During the first half of this period he wrote nine books, including his spiritual autobiography, *Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners (1666). In 1665 appeared The Holy City, or The New Jerusalem, inspired by a passage in the Book of Revelation. In 1672 he published  A Confession of my Faith, and a Reason of My Practice. After his release in 1672 he was appointed pastor at the same church, but was imprisoned again for a short period in 1677 during which he probably finished the first part of *The Pilgrim's Progress, which had been written during the latter years of the first imprisonment. The first part was published in 1678, and the second, together with the whole work, in 1684. His other principal works are The Life and Death of Mr *Badman (1680) and The Holy War (1682). Bunyan preached in many parts, his down-to-earth, humorous, and impassioned style drawing crowds of hundreds, but was not further molested. There are recent editions of his more important works by R. Sharrock, who also wrote a biography. See also A Turbulent, Seditious and Factious People: John Bunyan and His Church by C. *Hill (1988).


Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners, or The Brief Relation of the Exceeding Mercy of God in Christ to his Poor Servant John Bunyan (1666), a Puritan conversion narrative by *Bunyan, testifying to the focal events in his journey to assurance of salvation. Its pastoral purpose was to comfort his flock at Bedford during his imprisonment. The author bound himself to the Puritan 'plain style', for 'God did not play in convincing of me . . . I may not play in relating'. The document chronicles anguished oscillation between spiritual despair and contrite reassurance and bears witness to the inner struggle of moods ('up and down twenty times in an hour') which typified Puritan experience. External events (military service in the Civil War, marriage, etc.) are subordinate to inner and spiritual events, as Bunyan struggles against the lure of church bells, the doctrines of the *Ranters, Sabbath recreations, dancing, swearing and blaspheming—even against envy of toads and dogs as being exempt from God's wrath. It details his joining of the Bedford church, call to the ministry, and trials.


The Pilgrim's Progress, from This World to That Which Is to Come, a prose allegory by *Bunyan. Part I published 1678 (a second edition with additions appeared in the same year, and a third in 1679), Part II 1684.
    The allegory takes the form of a dream by the author. In this he sees *Christian, with a burden on his back and reading in a book, from which he learns that the city in which he and his family dwell will be burned with fire. On the advice of Evangelist, Christian flees from the *City of Destruction, having failed to persuade his wife and children to accompany him. Pt I describes his pilgrimage through the *Slough of Despond, the Interpreter's House, the House Beautiful, the *Valley of Humiliation, the *Valley of the Shadow of Death, *Vanity Fair, *Doubting Castle, the *Delectable Mountains, the Country of *Beulah, to the *Celestial City. On the way he encounters various allegorical personages, among them Mr *Worldly Wiseman, *Faithful (who accompanies Christian on his way but is put to death in Vanity Fair), Hopeful (who next joins Christian), Giant *Despair, the foul fiend *Apollyon, and many others.
    Pt II relates how Christian's wife Christiana, moved by a vision, sets out with her children on the same pilgrimage, accompanied by her neighbour Mercy, despite the objections of Mrs Timorous and others. They are escorted by *Great-heart, who overcomes Giant Despair and other monsters and brings them to their destination. The work is a development of the Puritan conversion narrative (see GRACE ABOUNDING), drawing on popular literature such as *emblem books and *chapbooks, as well as *Foxe's Book of Martyrs and the Bible. It is remarkable for the beauty and simplicity of its language (Bunyan was permeated with the English of the Bible, though he was also a master of the colloquial English of his own time), the vividness and reality of the characterization, and the author's sense of humour and feeling for the world of nature. It circulated at first mainly in uneducated circles, and its wide appeal is shown by the fact that it has been translated into well over 100 languages. It became a children's classic, regarded by generations of parents as a manual of moral instruction and an aid to literacy, as well as a delightful tale. It was a seminal text in the development of the realistic novel, and Bunyan's humorously caustic development of the tradition of name symbolism influenced *Dickens, *Trollope, and *Thackeray.

The Life and Death of Mr Badman, an allegory by *Bunyan, published 1680.
    The allegory takes the form of a dialogue, in which Mr Wiseman relates the life of Mr Badman, recently deceased, and Mr. Attentive comments on it. The youthful Badman shows early signs of his vicious disposition. He beguiles a rich damsel into marriage and ruins her; sets up in trade and swindles his creditors by fraudulent bankruptcies and his customers by false weights; breaks his leg when coming home drunk; and displays a short-lived sickbed repentance. His wife dies of despair and Badman marries again, but his second wife is as wicked as he is and they part 'as poor as Howlets'. Finally Badman dies of a complication of diseases. The story is entertaining as well as edifying and has a place in the evolution of the English novel.








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